Black
Contents
Population
History
Current issues
Prominent black figures
Resources and links
Numbers
in Canada
According
to the 2001 Census, there are 662,200 blacks in Canada, 310,500
in Toronto, and 411,090 in Ontario.
Blacks have long histories in this country, and are more likely
to be Canadian-born. Proportions of Canadian-born visible
minorities varied widely from group to group, in large measure
a reflection of historical immigration patterns. About 45%
of blacks were born in Canada. In fact, only one in five blacks
is an immigrant who came to Canada in the last 10 years. Combined,
blacks were the third largest visible minority group in 2001.
The census enumerated 662,200 blacks in 2001, up 15% from
573,900 in 1996. This third largest visible minority group
represented 2.2% of the country’s total population and
17% of the visible minority population.
Many blacks
have a history in Canada dating back several centuries. In
2001, they were a proportionally large component of the visible
minority population in all Atlantic provinces and in Quebec:
Nova Scotia (57%), New Brunswick (41%), Prince Edward Island
(31%), Quebec (31%) and Newfoundland and Labrador (22%).
While
historically most black immigration was from the United States,
the pattern changed in the 1960’s. Until then, Canadian
immigration laws severely limited blacks’ rights to
immigrate to Canada. One of the only ways blacks could come
to Canada was under a special program that allowed them to
work as domestic labourers. The majority of them were women
from the Caribbean.
In the
late 1960’s, the Canadian government revamped its immigration
laws. From then on, immigrants would be admitted to Canada
based on the number of points they received. This change meant
an end to targeted discrimination against black people in
the immigration system. As a result, immigration from Caribbean
countries, in particular from Jamaica, increased dramatically.
By 1970, the number of immigrants from Caribbean and Asian
countries rose to 23 per cent of total immigration to Canada
from just 10 per cent four years earlier. Most Caribbeans
came to Canada looking for better job prospects. Many Caribbean
immigrants arriving in later years were sponsored by relatives
who had previously immigrated to Canada.
A new
statistic revealed in the 2001 Census were mixed unions, where
people marry or live common-law with individuals in different
ethnic or cultural groups. Overall, in 2001 there were 217,500
mixed unions (marriages and common-law unions) involving a
visible minority person with a non-visible minority person
or a person from a different visible minority group. The most
common union was between blacks and non-visible minorities.
There were 44,200 such couples in 2001, up 5% from 1991.
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History
Origins
in Canada
Black
participation in the exploration of North America began early.
When Samuel de Champlain established a settlement at Acadia,
a black crewman, Mathieu de Coste who knew the Mic Mac language
acted as an interpreter for the French.
It is not possible to say when the first person of African
descent arrived in what is now Canada. These were among the
earliest:
Name Unknown
Date of arrival unknown. Died of scurvy during the winter
of 1606-7 at Port Royal, Acadia.
Mathieu de Coste (Matthew de Costa)
Date of arrival unknown. "[T[he negro of the Sieur [Pierre]
Du Gua de Monts, who is supposed to have served in Acadia
around 1608."
Olivier Le Jeune
Arrived 1628. Brought on an English ship at a very young age.Sold
to a French colonist. Died 1654.
Source: Dictionary of Canadian Biography, Vol. I, p. 452.
In New
France, there were "Panis" or "Pawnee"
Indian slaves; in addition there were some black slaves. By
the end of the French Regime in 1760, historical data indicate
that there were about 3,500 slaves in New France, of which
perhaps 1,100 were blacks.
Ever since
the earliest days, when Canada was known as Upper and Lower
Canada, black people have been an integral part of the landscape.
In 1793, attempts to abolish slavery in Canada were made,
but not without compromise. However, slavery was completely
abolished with the passing of the British Imperial Act, August
1, 1834. After that day, (also known as Emancipation Day)
a steady but slow exodus began from the United States, to
Canada.
Although Canada never truly played a role in the triangular
slave trade, it was not until the 1790's that the courts made
slavery illegal. In 1833 the British government declared that
"every man is free who reaches British ground";
consequently, Canada continued to be the promised land for
fugitive slaves.
Blacks
escaping the brutality of bondage did so primarily along the
Underground Railroad. Led only by the North Star, and people
such as Harriet Tuibman, they made their way to safer havens
in Canada.The underground railroad was neither underground
nor a railroad. It was a loosely constructed network of escape
routes originating in the southern United States that wound
its way north and eventually into Canada.
An intriguing
feature of the underground railroad was its lack of formal
organization. The organization profited from the hard work
and collaboration of various individuals from different religious
and ethnic groups. Although most slaves were denied an education,
they were able to develop an elaborate code that guided thousands
to freedom in the north.
It is
estimated that some 40,000 slaves made it to Canada via the
underground railroad.
While
the new country presented an opportunity for them to rebuild
their lives, the former slaves could not always escape the
evils of racism. The new Canadians sometimes came under physical
attack by those unsympathetic to the anti-slavery movement
and by bounty-hunters hired by American slave holders.
Nevertheless,
blacks established in Canada not only survived, but many thrived.
They contributed actively to the advancement of Canada through
the publication of newspapers and other creative and entrepreneurial
endeavours.
Confederation and World Wars I and II
Between
Confederation and World War I, free blacks and runaways escaping
the institutionalized racism of the American South entered
every Canadian province. Hardships posed by the climate, terrain,
vegetation and social attitudes did not stop them. They often
encountered individuals both in private life and public office
who discriminated against them. One individual in public office
encouraged emigration to Trinidad on behalf of that government.
Those
insisting on exclusion tried to deny the newcomers equality,
to bar them from the opportunity to participate fully as citizens
and to control their freedom.
So strong
was the determination of the newcomers that many became highly
productive citizens contributing economically, socially, culturally
and politically. For example, a Canadian black man, William
Hall, was one of the first people in the world (November 1857)
to be awarded the Victoria Cross for valour.
Blacks have
participated in various roles in every military undertaking
in which Canadians have engaged. They served during the 1837
Rebellions, the Crimean War (1853-1856), the American Civil
War (1861-1865), the Fenian Raids (1865-1866), the Boer War
(1899-1902), World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945).
Items in this unit focus upon contributions of Blacks in World
War I.
According
to the Canadian census of 1911 the number of blacks in Canada
was 16 877 or 0.23% of Canada's total population. Evidence
reveals that there was resistance and reluctance on the part
of the Canadian government to accept blacks into the forces.
However, in spite of these obstacles, blacks volunteered and
urged others to volunteer. In Nova Scotia, the Number 2 Construction
Battalion, a segregated black unit, was formed. Many noteworthy
efforts and achievements were made by black Canadians during
World War I.
Members
of the Battalion received expressions of gratitude from the
civic authorities of Montréal in the form of testimonial
statements issued in 1919 and which concluded with the words,
"...you have written a glorious page in the history of
the world, which will be an inspiration for future generations."
In the 1970s and 1980s surviving veterans of World War I,
including those from the Number 2 Construction Battalion,
attended reunions and were honored in various ways. Black
Canadians, both men and women, served their country courageously.
Although
traces of institutionalized racial discrimination still existed
between the wars, there is evidence that black citizens were
developing a variety of strategies to dismantle old barriers.
For instance, a Montreal chapter of Marcus Garvey's Universal
Negro Improvement Association was established in June 1919.
The Coloured Women's Club of Montreal and the Union Church
of Montreal were also active in promoting the interests of
blacks.
Individual
black men and women continued to break down old stereotypes.
Their achievements advanced their local communities, benefited
the wider society and often received international acclaim.
Contributions ranged from intellectual and religious leaderships
through accomplishments in sport, journalism, music and the
entertainment industry.
As was the
case in previous wars. Blacks played an active role in World
War II. Unlike World War I no segregated units were formed during
World War II and conditions for blacks enlisting in the Canadian
Armed Forces had improved. However, discrimination in the military
persisted.
The presence
of blacks serving their country in World War I had to some
extent broken down barriers of discrimination. This helped
pave the way for blacks to enter services such as the Royal
Canadian Air Force in World War II.
After
the war, black veterans formed branches of the Canadian Legion.
One such Montreal branch was named after a prominent member
of the black community, Dr. Gaspard.
World War
II did not end racism: discrimination, denial of job opportunities
and restrictive immigration policies continued.
Fanned
by the winds of change and social protest from the United
States, Canadian blacks challenged and protested injustices.
In response,
governments initiated corrective legislation: they changed
immigration policy from a quota system to a point system,
desegregated public schools and created Charters of Human
Rights, thus prohibiting discrimination.
Source: Some
Missing Pages: The Black Community in the History of Quebec
and Canada
Black History Month
February
is commonly recognized as Black History Month. The origins
of Black History Month can be traced to 1926, when Harvard-educated
black historian Carter G. Woodson founded Negro History Week
to celebrate the history, contributions and culture of African-Americans.
Woodson chose the second week in February for the new festival
to link the celebrations to the birth dates of black activist
Frederick Douglass (February 7, 1817) and President Abraham
Lincoln (February 12, 1809). Fifty years later, as part of
the American bi-centennial celebrations in 1976, the week
was expanded to become National Black History month.
In Canada,
official recognition first came in the early 1950's when the
Canadian Negro Women's Association successfully petitioned
the Toronto city council to acknowledge the week. This initial
acceptance apparantly faded over the years. It was not until
the late 1970's that the council, after lobbying by the newly
formed Ontario Black History Society, followed the example
of the United States and declared that henceforth February
would be known as Black History Month.
In Ontario,
provincial recognition came in January 1993 by Lieutenant
Governor Hal Jackman. National recognition followed on December
14, 1995 by Jean Augustine, the Parliamentary Secretary to
the Prime Minister.
Visit Diversity Watch's special section dedicated to Black
History Month.
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Current issues
Racial
profiling
Recently
in 2002, racial profiling against blacks by police was an
issue of much controversy. The Toronto Star broke this
story in an investigative series titled Race & Crime.
You can view their report and the aftermath by clicking here.
Black businesses
In 1992,
the Black Pages conducted study on black businesses. Results
illustrated that black business economic competitiveness in
comparison with mainstream business or even businesses within
other ethnic communities was low. According to the study,
the business participation rate of blacks in Toronto was less
than one third of that of other ethnic groups. Although it
can be argued that this figure might have increased since
1992, it can still be argued that black owned businesses have
yet to make a significant leap toward the economic mainstream.
Blacks
and education
With the
passage of the Safe Schools Act in Ontario, it has been alleged
that in many cases black students are often singled out and
unfairly targeted by the new zero-tolerance laws. This issue
has been covered in various media such as Toronto 1 and various
ethnic newspapers such as SHARE. A higher proportion of black
students has been affected by the zero-tolerance initiative
than any other ethnic group. It is important to note that
principals, under the safe schools legislation, have the subjective
right to expel a student for extreme inappropriate behaviour
such as weapons possession or violence within the school.
The key question is whether every child of every ethnic group
is being expelled for the same reasons by the same principals.
In a July
4, 2003 Globe and Mail story, Ontario Human Rights Commissioner
Keith Norton mentioned that there may be a need for an inquiry
into possible unfair treatment of visible minority and disabled
students under the zero-tolerance laws. He also said it might
be necessary to note the race of those who have been disciplined
under the laws.
Blacks
and “statistics”
The McGill
Consortium for Ethnicity and Strategic Social Planning conducted
a research study in 1997 on blacks and their representation
in Canadian life. The research concluded that blacks are underrepresented
in higher paying jobs and senior management positions. Blacks
are also less likely to be self-employed or supported by investment.
On the other hand, the research pointed to Statistics Canada’s
routine habit of undercounting the black population. They
noted that the black population was as much as 40 per cent
greater in 1991 than Statistics Canada documented. This changes
the validity of reports on education attainment, crime rates
and economic mobility within the black community. If the statistics
are not accurate, the ‘facts’ need to be questioned.
For more
information on this study, see http://www.blackstudies.ca/contact/study.htm#top
“Black
on black” violence
From September
2002 to November 2002, nine black men were killed by other
black men. In over half of those cases, the weapon was a gun.
Over the past five years, over 100 black youth have been killed
by other black youth.
These
statistics leave many people pointing blame at the black community
and asking how society is failing black youth. However, often
it is only in response to these black on black killings that
the subjects of systemic racism, poverty and police brutality
are raised. Still others point to the violence portrayed and,
some say, glorified in black culture and media as a cause
of the killings.
Another
issue is the source of guns used in the killings. A report
by the Mackenzie Institute says that barely any firearms used
in the commission of crimes are legitimately owned. It estimates
that about 75 per cent of all handguns and automatic weapons
used in violent crimes in Canada are smuggled or stolen. It
is relevant, then, to ask how black youth are getting hold
of these weapons.
Blacks
and sexual orientation
Acknowledgement
of black gays and lesbians is still considered a taboo subject.
Although more blacks are starting to come out, black community
services and support is quite limited. Often, coming out is
at the expense of family and community ties.
Misconceptions
and stereotypes about the black community
One important
misconception to dispel is the idea that all blacks in Canada
are from Jamaica. This wrong generalization is often carried
over into the media’s coverage of black crime as ‘Jamaicanized’
behaviour.
Another
stereotype is that of the ghettoized black mother ‘sucking
up’ welfare. In fact, it is white mothers who represent
the majority of social assistance recipients.
As well,
there is a common stereotype of black people as lazy with
no real desire to work. The reality is that many immigrants,
including black people, are coming to Canada with advanced
qualifications and experience that are overlooked as not equivalent
to Canadian standards.
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Prominent
black figures
The
Hon. Dr. Jean Augustine
The first black woman elected to the Parliament of Canada
The
Hon. Mary Anne Chambers
The minister of training, colleges and universities for Ontario
The
Hon. Lincoln M. Alexander
The first black person elected to the House of Commons and
the first black person to become Lieutenant Governor
Contact: c/o Canadian Race Relations Foundation
(416) 952-3500
Marie
Clarke Walker
The first person elected to the position of National Diversity
Vice President of the Canadian Union of Public Employees
Dr.
Carolyn Joyce Jarrett
The first black female optometrist practicing in Ontario
Sol
Guy
One of Canada’s leading music executives in the urban
music sector
Cameron
Bailey
The first black film critic in Canada
Betty
Riley
The first black woman television producer in Canada
(519) 253-9929
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Resources and links
Media
organizations and publications
Who's
Who in Black Canada: Black Success and Black Excellence in
Canada
A directory of well-known people in Canada's black communities
published by Dawn Williams
(416) 694-8149
dawn@whoswhoinblackcanada.com
Share
Share is published weekly and offers coverage of African-Canadian
and Caribbean news, politics, business, arts/entertainment,
education, debate and community awareness.
(416) 656-3400
share@interlog.com
PRIDE
news magazine
PRIDE reaches over 100,000 readers weekly with coverage of
African-Canadian and Caribbean news, entertainment, health,
politics, business and culture.
(416) 335-1719
Caribbean
Camera Newspaper
Ghanian
News Canada
Somali
Press
The
Weekly Gleaner
A paper offering daily local, national and international African-Canadian/Caribbean
news, entertainment, culture, politics and business updates.
(416) 784-3002
gleanerna@sprint.ca
WORD
magazine
A magazine with features on urban Canadian music, books, stage,
technology and media.
(905) 799-1630
word@wordmag.com
Black on Black - CHUO 89.1 FM
Black
Canadian magazine
Today’s
Canadian Black Woman magazine
Gillian
magazine
Community
organizations
Black
Pages
The Black Pages were established in 1989 with the purpose
of identifying and promoting Black and Caribbean businesses
and professionals.
Contact:
(416) 657-8884
info@blackpages.ca
Canadian
Association of Black Journalists
(416) 928-3362) extension 2120
info@cabj.ca or communications @cabj.ca
National
Association of Black Journalists (301) 445-7100
nabj@nabj.org
Regent
Park Focus Coalition
Youth from this community group have created various print
and film media showcasing their cultural diversity within
Regent Park, systemic barriers faced on a daily basis, along
with the often strained relationship between police and community
members, particularly black males.
Contact:
Adonis Huggins
(416) 863-1074
African-Canadian
Legal Clinic
The ACLC opened in 1994 with the goal of addressing systemic
racism and racial discrimination in Ontario though a test
case litigation strategy.
(416) 214-4747
info@aclc.net
Urban
Alliance on Race Relations
The UARR was formed in 1975 by a group of concerned Toronto
citizens. Its primary goal is to “promote a stable and
healthy multi-racial environment in the community.”
(416) 703-6607
uarr@interlog.com
Black
Coalition of Aids Prevention
(416) 977-9955
blackcap@black-cap.com
Tropicana
Community Services
An organization providing culturally appropriate social services
in east Toronto, focusing on the needs of youth and the Caribbean
and black communities.
(416) 439-9009
tcso@netwave.ca
Coalition
of Black Trade Unionists
Contact:
Beverley Johnson
bjohnson@cbtu.ca
Halifax North Branch Community Access Centre - Afrocentric
Page
Jamaican
Canadian Association
(416) 746-5772
info@jcassoc.com
African-Canadian
Online @ York University
This site began in 1996 from a student project and has now
become a community wide resource for information on African-Canadian
culture, members and events/reviews of events.
Culture,
arts and history
EmilyMills.net
website
A site dedicated to urban music and African-Canadian culture.
It also includes links to various community resources.
Up
From the Roots Entertainment
A site featuring current news, culture and arts, including
links to events, reviews and profiles of community members.
National
Archives of Canada
“Anti-Slavery Movement in Canada”
Important Events in Canadian Black History
Some
Missing Pages: The Black Community in the History of Quebec
and Canada
African-Canadian Heritage
Ontario
Black History Online
African Canadian
Dramatic Arts Society
Canadian
Black Heritage in the Third Millenium
Black
History Month Association
A
Glimpse of Black Life in Victorian Toronto: 1850-1860
Black
History in Early Toronto
Many Rivers to Cross: The African-Canadian Experience
The Blacks, Anti-Slavery and the Underground Railway
The Complex Face of Black Canada
The Global Gathering Place: History of African Canadians
The Underground
Railroad Years: Canada in an International Arena
Toronto Celebrates Black History Month
Black Immigrants
Black Settlers Come to Alberta
Black History Awareness Society
Black
Historical and Cultural Society
The
Story of the Underground Railroad
Canadian Heritage - Black History Month
Black Voice
African
Heritage Month
Africville, the devastating story of a Black settlement
in Halifax
Africville: Urban Removal in Canada
Birchtown Archaeology : Excavating a Black Loyalist
Settlement in Nova Scotia
Black Cultural Centre for
Nova Scotia
African Canadian Services Division - Nova Scotia Education
and Culture
Black
History Month Association
From Slavery to Sierra Leone
Remembering Black Loyalists, Black Communities in Nova
Scotia
James Robinson Johnston Chair in Black Canadian Studies
- Dalhousie University
Portia White Home Page
Pride of Race, Unity
and Dignity Through Education Inc.
Black History Month Backgrounder
Black History Ottawa
Black History in Guelph and Wellington County
BlackVoice:
The Griot's Journey
Breaking the Ice: The Mary Ann Shadd Story
Buxton Historic
Site & Museum
Ontario Black History Society
Ontario Black
History Society Archives: On-line Collection
Ontario's Underground
Railroad
Opening the History Books: Significant Black Canadians
Preserving Black History - the Alvin D. McCurdy Collection
Toronto Celebrates Black History Month
Black Studies Centre
Some Missing Pages: Black History in Quebec & Canada
A Black Chapter in Saskatchewan's History: Against the
Tide
A Black Chapter in Saskatchewan's History: When the
KKK Rode High...
Karen
McCrindle
A researcher on Caribbean languages
Toronto
Talks Featuring the Slang of Toronto’s Black Youth
BlackWeb
Black History in Early Toronto
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